Precision Surveying: The Principles and Geomatics Practice

A comprehensive overview of high precision surveying, including recent developments in geomatics and their applications This book covers advanced precision surveying techniques, their proper use in engineering and geoscience projects, and their importance in the detailed analysis and evaluation of surveying projects. The early chapters review the fundamentals of precision surveying: the types of surveys; survey observations; standards and specifications; and accuracy assessments for angle, distance and position difference measurement systems. The book also covers network design and 3–D coordinating systems before discussing specialized topics such as structural and ground deformation monitoring techniques and analysis, mining surveys, tunneling surveys, and alignment surveys. Precision Surveying: The Principles and Geomatics Practice: Covers structural and ground deformation monitoring analysis, advanced techniques in mining and tunneling surveys, and high precision alignment of engineering structures Discusses the standards and specifications available for geomatics projects, including their representations, interpretations, relationships with quality assurance/quality control measures, and their use in geomatics projects Describes network design and simulation, including error analysis and budgeting Explains the main properties of high–precision surveys with regard to basic survey procedures and different traditional measurement techniques Analyzes survey observables such as angle, distance, elevation difference and coordinate difference measurements, and the relevant equipment, including  the testing and utilization of the equipment Provides several case studies and real world examples Precision Surveying: The Principles and Geomatics Practice is written for upper undergraduate students and graduate students in the fields of surveying and geomatics. This textbook is also a resource for geomatics researchers, geomatics software developers, and practicing surveyors and engineers interested in precision surveys. INDICE: About the Author xvii .Foreword xix .Preface xxi .Acknowledgments xxv .1 Precision Survey Properties and Techniques 1 .1.1 Introduction, 1 .1.2 Basic Classification of Precision Surveys, 3 .1.2.1 Geodetic Control Network Surveys, 3 .1.2.2 Monitoring and Deformation Surveys, 4 .1.2.3 Geodetic Engineering Surveys, 5 .1.2.4 Industrial Metrology, 7 .1.2.5 Surveys for Research and Education, 8 .1.3 Precision Geodetic Survey Techniques, 8 .1.3.1 Positioning using Global Navigation Satellite System, 8 .1.3.2 Conventional Horizontal Positioning Techniques, 10 .1.3.3 Geodetic Vertical Positioning Techniques, 11 .1.4 Review of Some Safety Issues, 12 .2 Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors 15 .2.1 Observables, Measurements and Measuring Instruments, 15 .2.2 Angle and Direction Measuring Instruments, 16 .2.2.1 Optical Theodolites, 17 .2.2.2 Electronic Digital Theodolites, 19 .2.2.3 Gyrotheodolite/Gyro Station Equipment, 20 .2.2.4 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Survey Equipment, 20 .2.3 Elevation Difference Measuring Instrument, 20 .2.4 Distance Measuring Instrument, 24 .2.5 Accuracy Limitations of Modern Survey Instruments, 25 .2.5.1 Atmospheric and Target Conditions, 25 .2.5.2 Equipment Design and Precision, 26 .2.5.3 Instrument Operator Factor, 27 .2.6 Error Properties of Measurements, 28 .2.6.1 Blunders (or Gross Error), 28 .2.6.2 Random and Systematic Errors, 28 .2.7 Precision and Accuracy Indicators, 29 .2.8 Systematic Error and Random Error Propagation Laws, 30 .2.8.1 Systematic Error Propagation Laws, 30 .2.8.2 Random Error Propagation Laws, 31 .2.8.3 Confidence Regions for One–Dimensional Parameters, 32 .2.8.4 Confidence Regions for Two–Dimensional Parameters, 34 .2.9 Statistical Test of Hypotheses: The Tools for Data Analysis, 38 .2.9.1 Observations of One Observable: Test on the Mean, 39 .2.9.2 Observations of Two Observables: Test on the Difference of Their Means, 39 .2.9.3 Observations of One Observable: Test on the Variance, 41 .2.9.4 Observations of Two Observables: Comparison of Their Standard Deviations, 43 .2.10 Need for Equipment Calibration and Testing, 44 .3 Standards and Specifications for Precision Surveys 47 .3.1 Introduction, 48 .3.1.1 Precision Standards, 48 .3.1.2 Accuracy Standards, 48 .3.1.3 Content Standards, 49 .3.1.4 Performance Standards, 49 .3.1.5 General Comparison of Standards, 50 .3.1.6 Standards and Specifications, 50 .3.2 Standards and the Concept of Confidence Regions, 51 .3.3 Standards for Traditional Vertical Control Surveys, 52 .3.3.1 Accuracy Measure of Vertical Control Surveys, 52 .3.3.2 Specifications and Guidelines for Vertical Control Surveys, 55 .3.3.3 Typical Field Procedure for Precise Differential Leveling, 58 .3.3.3.1 Electronic Leveling, 61 .3.3.4 Accuracy of Height Differences, 61 .3.3.5 Vertical Control Surveys Examples, 62 .3.4 Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys, 66 .3.4.1 Accuracy Standards for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys, 66 .3.4.2 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Traverse Surveys, 68 .3.4.3 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for GNSS Surveys, 71 .3.5 Unified Standards for Positional Accuracy, 72 .3.5.1 Network Accuracy, 73 .3.5.2 Local Accuracy, 73 .3.5.3 Accuracy Classification, 74 .3.6 Map and Geospatial Data Accuracy Standards, 77 .3.6.1 Positional Accuracy Determination Based on NSSDA, 78 .3.6.2 Relationship between Standards, 81 .3.6.2.1 NSSDA and NMAS Horizontal Accuracy Standards, 81 .3.6.2.2 NSSDA and NMAS Vertical Accuracy Standards, 82 .3.6.2.3 NSSDA and ASPRS Standards, 82 .3.7 Quality and Standards, 82 .4 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System 87 .4.1 Sources of Errors in Angle Measurements, 87 .4.2 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Measurement Process, 88 .4.2.1 Horizontal Collimation (Line–of–Sight) Error, 89 .4.2.2 Vertical Collimation (Index) Error, 90 .4.2.3 Tilting (or Horizontal) Axis Error, 92 .4.2.4 Compensator Index Error and Circle Graduation Error, 95 .4.2.5 Eliminating Systematic Errors by Double–Centering: Example, 96 .4.3 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Adjustment Process, 98 .4.3.1 Plummet Error, 98 .4.3.2 Standing Axis Error, 99 .4.3.3 Plate Bubble Error, 101 .4.3.4 Atmospheric Refraction, 102 .4.4 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination, 106 .4.5 Random Error Estimation, 106 .4.5.1 Pointing Error, 106 .4.5.2 Reading Error, 108 .4.5.2.1 Repetition Method, 109 .4.5.2.2 Directional Method, 109 .4.5.3 Instrument Leveling Error, 110 .4.5.4 Instrument and Target Centering Errors, 112 .4.5.5 Random Atmospheric Refraction Error, 115 .4.5.6 Random Error Propagation for Angle Measurements, 115 .4.5.6.1 Horizontal Direction Measurements, 115 .4.5.6.2 Horizontal Angle Measurements, 116 .4.5.6.3 Zenith (or Vertical) Angle Measurements, 117 .4.5.7 Error Analysis of Azimuth Determination, 119 .4.5.8 Check of Angular Closure of a Traverse, 121 .4.6 Testing Procedure for Precision Theodolites, 123 .4.6.1 Precision of Theodolite Based on Horizontal Direction Measurements, 123 .4.6.1.1 Precision Determination of Horizontal Direction Measurement, 124 .4.6.2 Precision of Theodolite Based on Zenith Angle Measurements, 128 .4.6.2.1 Precision Determination of Zenith Angle Measurement, 128 .5 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System 133 .5.1 Introduction, 133 .5.2 General Properties of Waves, 134 .5.2.1 Modulation of EM Waves, 137 .5.3 Application of EM Waves to EDM, 138 .5.3.1 EDM Pulse Measurement Principle, 138 .5.3.2 EDM Phase Difference Measurement Principle, 139 .5.3.3 Effects of Atmosphere on EDM Measurements, 143 .5.3.3.1 Velocity Corrections to EDM Measurements, 148 .5.3.3.2 Geometric Correction: Wave Path to Chord Correction, 151 .5.4 EDM Instrumental Errors, 153 .5.5 EDM External Errors, 154 .5.6 Random Error Propagation of EDM Distance Measurement, 155 .5.6.1 Numerical Examples, 158 .5.7 Calibration and Testing Procedures for EDM Instruments, 165 .5.7.1 Observation and Data–Processing Methodology, 166 .5.7.1.1 Temperature Sensor Types, 167 .5.7.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure and Relative Humidity Sensor Types, 168 .5.7.2 EDM Baseline Designs, 168 .5.7.3 EDM Calibration When Length of Baseline Is Known, 170 .5.7.4 EDM Calibration When Length of Baseline Is Unknown, 175 .5.7.4.1 System Constant Determination: Standard Approach, 175 .5.7.4.2 System Constant Determination: Modified Standard Approach, 177 .5.7.4.3 System Constant Determination: Approximate Approach, 179 .5.7.5 EDM Standardization, 179 .5.7.5.1 EDM Standardization: Frequency Method, 180 .5.7.6 Use of Calibration Parameters, 180 .6 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate Difference Measurement Systems 189 .6.1 Introduction, 189 .6.2 Pointing Error, 190 .6.3 Reading/Rod Plumbing Error, 191 .6.4 Leveling Error, 191 .6.5 Collimation, Rod Scale, and Rod Index Errors, 192 .6.6 Effects of Vertical Atmospheric Refraction and Earth Curvature, 193 .6.7 Random Error Propagation for Elevation Difference Measurements, 194 .6.8 Testing Procedures for Leveling Equipment, 197 .6.8.1 Precision Determination of Leveling Equipment, 199 .6.9 Calibration of Coordinate Difference Measurement System (GNSS Equipment), 203 .6.9.1 GNSS Measurement Validation, 204 .6.9.1.1 Basic Configuration of GNSS Validation Networks, 205 .6.9.2 GNSS Zero–Baseline Test, 206 .6.9.3 GNSS Antennas Phase Center Variations, 207 .6.9.4 Supplementary GNSS Equipment Calibration, 207 .6.9.5 General Concerns on GNSS Equipment Calibration, 208 .7 Survey Design and Analysis 209 .7.1 Introduction, 209 .7.2 Network Design, 211 .7.2.1 Geodetic Network Design, 212 .7.2.2 Design of GNSS Survey, 213 .7.2.3 Design of Deformation Monitoring Scheme, 214 .7.2.3.1 Accuracy Requirement, 215 .7.2.3.2 Reliability Requirement, 217 .7.2.3.3 Separability or Discriminability Requirement, 217 .7.2.3.4 Cost–Effectiveness Requirement, 217 .7.3 Solution Approaches to Design Problems, 218 .7.3.1 Simulation Steps for Network Design, 218 .7.4 Network Adjustment and Analysis, 223 .7.5 Angular Measurement Design Example, 223 .7.6 Distance Measurement Design Example, 226 .7.7 Traverse Measurement Design Examples, 227 .7.8 Elevation Difference Measurement Design Example, 235 .8 Three–Dimensional Coordinating Systems 237 .8.1 Introduction, 238 .8.1.1 Two–Dimensional Coordinate Reference Systems, 239 .8.1.2 Three–Dimensional Coordinate Reference Systems, 240 .8.1.2.1 Topographic Coordinate System, 242 .8.2 Coordinate System for Three–Dimensional Coordinating Systems, 243 .8.3 Three–Dimensional Coordination with Global Navigation Satellite System, 244 .8.4 Three–Dimensional Coordination with Electronic Theodolites, 244 .8.4.1 Coordinating Techniques, 244 .8.4.2 Field Data Reductions, 246 .8.4.3 Three–Dimensional Coordinate Determination, 248 .8.4.4 Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Electronic Coordinating Systems, 251 .8.4.4.1 Effect of Equipment and Target Design, 252 .8.4.4.2 Effect of Geometry of Measurement Scheme, 253 .8.4.4.3 Effect of the Environment, 253 .8.4.5 Analysis of Three–Dimensional Traverse Surveys, 253 .8.4.5.1 Observables in Three–Dimensional Traverse Surveys, 254 .8.4.5.2 Data Processing and Analysis, 256 .8.4.5.3 Effect of Correlation on Traverse Closure, 257 .8.5 Three–Dimensional Coordination with Laser Systems, 258 .8.5.1 Coordination with Airborne Laser Scanning System, 258 .8.5.1.1 Accuracy Analysis of Airborne Laser Scanning System, 259 .8.5.2 Coordination with Terrestrial Laser Scanning System, 261 .8.5.2.1 Georeferencing Problem, 262 .8.5.2.2 Accuracy Analysis of Terrestrial Laser Scanning System, 263 .9 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques 267 .9.1 Introduction, 268 .9.1.1 Characteristics of Geodetic Monitoring Techniques, 270 .9.1.2 Deformation Monitoring and Control Surveys, 272 .9.1.3 Geodetic Monitoring Measurements and Error Sources, 272 .9.2 Geodetic Deformation Monitoring Schemes and the Design Approach, 273 .9.3 Monumentation and Targeting, 278 .9.3.1 Dam Slope and Crest Monuments and Targets, 282 .9.3.2 Monuments for Subsidence Monitoring in Mining Area, 282 .9.4 Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis, 284 .9.4.1 Monitoring Techniques, 284 .9.4.2 Observables and Data Preprocessing, 287 .9.4.3 Monitoring–Data Processing Techniques, 291 .9.4.3.1 Least Squares Adjustment of Single–Epoch Measurements, 291 .9.4.3.2 Free Network Adjustment Model, 293 .9.4.3.3 Statistical Analysis of Single–Epoch Measurements, 297 .9.4.3.4 Deformation Estimation from Two–Epoch Measurements, 299 .9.4.3.5 Iterative Weighted Similarity Transformation, 302 .9.4.4 Observation Differencing Adjustment Approach, 304 .9.4.5 Geometrical Analysis of Deformation Measurements, 305 .9.4.5.1 Statistical Trend Analysis of Deformations, 307 .9.4.5.2 Graphical Trend Analysis of Deformations, 308 .9.4.6 Examples: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis of Hydroelectric Dams, 309 .9.4.6.1 Simulated Dam Deformation Monitoring and Analysis, 311 .9.4.6.2 Dam Deformation Monitoring and Analysis in Practice, 315 .9.4.7 Deformation Monitoring of Slope Walls, 317 .9.4.8 Deformation Monitoring of Tunnels, 321 .9.5 Vertical Deformation Monitoring and Analysis, 322 .9.5.1 Tilt, Strain, and Curvature Determination from Geodetic Leveling, 324 .10 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High–Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques 329 .10.1 Introduction, 330 .10.2 Laser Systems, 330 .10.2.1 Properties of Laser, 330 .10.2.1.1 Monochromatic Property of Laser, 331 .10.2.1.2 Directional Property of Laser, 331 .10.2.1.3 Coherency Property of Laser, 332 .10.2.1.4 Output Intensity Property of Laser, 332 .10.2.1.5 Degradation of Laser Properties, 332 .10.2.1.6 Application of Laser, 333 .10.2.2 Terrestrial Laser Scanners, 333 .10.2.2.1 Measuring Techniques of Terrestrial Laser Scanners, 333 .10.2.2.2 Georeferencing Principles of Scanner Data, 334 .10.2.2.3 Classification of Terrestrial Laser Scanners, 336 .10.2.2.4 Procedures for Terrestrial Laser Scanning Project, 336 .10.2.2.5 Sources of Error in Terrestrial Laser Scanners, 340 .10.2.2.6 Advantages and Limitations of Terrestrial Laser Scanners, 342 .10.2.2.7 Application of Terrestrial Laser Scanners in Deformation Monitoring, 344 .10.2.2.8 Propagated Error for Computed Deformations, 350 .10.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies, 350 .10.3.1 Concepts of Synthetic Aperture Radar, 350 .10.3.2 Basic Principles of Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar, 353 .10.3.3 InSAR Data Processing Overview, 358 .10.3.4 Persistent or Permanent Scatterer InSAR Technique, 364 .10.3.5 Artificial Scatterer or Corner Reflector InSAR Technique, 365 .10.3.6 Limitations of InSAR Techniques, 366 .10.3.7 Applications of InSAR Techniques, 367 .10.3.8 Ground–Based InSAR (GB–InSAR) Techniques, 368 .10.3.8.1 Examples of SAR Systems: IBIS–L and IBIS–FS, 371 .10.3.8.2 Examples of Real–Beam Aperture Radar Systems: SSR and MSR 300, 373 .10.3.8.3 Example: Fast Ground–Based Synthetic Aperture Radar (FastGBSAR), 373 .10.3.8.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of GB–InSAR Techniques, 374 .10.4 Comparison of Laser (LiDAR) and Radar (InSAR) Technologies, 376 .11 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques 377 .11.1 Introduction, 378 .11.2 Overview of Geotechnical and Structural Instrumentation, 380 .11.2.1 Extensometers, 380 .11.2.1.1 Rod Extensometers, 383 .11.2.1.2 Tape Extensometers, 387 .11.2.2 Four–Pin Gauges, 389 .11.2.3 Joint Meters, 390 .11.2.4 Plumb Lines, 390 .11.2.4.1 Suspended (or Weighted) Plumb Lines, 393 .11.2.4.2 Inverted Plumblines, 396 .11.2.5 Inclinometers, 399 .11.2.6 Tiltmeters, 405 .11.2.7 Fiber–Optic Sensors, 406 .11.2.7.1 Basic Principle, 407 .11.2.7.2 Partially Distributed Fiber–Optic Sensors, 407 .11.2.7.3 Long–Base Fiber–Optic Sensors, 409 .11.2.7.4 Fully Distributed Fiber–Optic Sensors, 411 .11.2.8 Micro–Electro–Mechanical System (MEMS) Sensors, 412 .11.2.8.1 Example of MEMS Sensor: ShapeAccelArray (SAA) Sensor, 413 .11.3 Design of Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Schemes, 419 .11.4 Analysis of Geotechnical Measurements, 422 .11.4.1 Analysis of Extensometer Measurements, 424 .11.4.1.1 Calibration Aspects of Rod and Tape Extensometers, 428 .11.4.1.2 Borehole Rod Extensometer Measurements, 429 .11.4.1.3 Tape Extensometer Measurements, 430 .11.4.2 Analysis of Joint Meter Measurements, 431 .11.4.3 Analysis of Plumbline Measurements, 432 .11.4.4 Analysis of Tiltmeter Measurements, 433 .11.4.5 Numerical Examples, 435 .11.5 Integrated Deformation Monitoring System, 437 .12 Mining Surveying 441 .12.1 Introduction, 442 .12.1.1 Survey Standards and Procedures for Mine Surveys, 444 .12.1.1.1 Typical Survey Markers in the Mines, 445 .12.2 Mining Terminology, 445 .12.3 Horizontal Mine Orientation Surveys, 446 .12.3.1 Direct Traversing Technique, 447 .12.3.2 Mechanical Technique, 448 .12.3.2.1 Orientation Transfer with Two Wires in a Single Vertical Shaft, 449 .12.3.2.2 Orientation Transfer with Two or More Vertical Shafts, 462 .12.3.3 Orientation Transfer Using Optical Method, 463 .12.3.3.1 Using Laser Plummet, 464 .12.3.3.2 Using Zenith Plummet, 465 .12.3.3.3 Using Theodolite and Plummet, 466 .12.3.4 Orientation Transfer by Gyro Azimuth, 467 .12.3.4.1 Gyrotheodolite/Gyro Station Equipment, 467 .12.3.4.2 Preorientation of Gyrotheodolite, 469 .12.3.4.3 Precise Methods of Gyro Orientation, 470 .12.3.4.4 Azimuth Determination with the Gyro Station GP3X Equipment, 475 .12.3.4.5 Use of Gyro Equipment in Underground Mines, 480 .12.4 Transferring Levels or Heights Underground, 483 .12.4.1 Height Transfer with EDM, 483 .12.4.2 Height Transfer with Measuring Tape, 485 .12.4.3 Height Transfer in Shallow Shafts, 486 .12.4.4 Typical Corrections Applied to Measurements in Height Transfer, 486 .12.5 Volume Determination in Mines, 491 .13 Tunneling Surveys 495 .13.1 Introduction, 495 .13.2 Basic Elements and Methods of Tunneling Surveys, 496 .13.3 Main Sources of Error in Tunneling Surveys, 500 .13.4 Horizontal Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys, 503 .13.5 Vertical Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys, 508 .13.5.1 Design of Surface Vertical Control Network, 509 .13.5.2 Design of Underground Vertical Control Network, 510 .13.5.3 Vertical Breakthrough Analysis, 510 .13.6 Numerical Example: Horizontal Breakthrough Analysis, 512 .13.6.1 Surface Network Analysis, 513 .13.6.1.1 Results of the Surface Survey Analysis, 514 .13.6.2 Underground Network Analysis, 515 .13.6.2.1 Results of the Underground Survey Analysis, 516 .13.7 Examples of Tunneling Surveys, 516 .13.7.1 Transportation Tunneling Surveys: Rogers Pass Tunnel in Canada, 516 .13.7.2 Transportation Tunneling Surveys: The Channel Tunnel in Europe, 517 .13.7.3 Tunneling Surveys for Scientific Research: SSC Project in Texas, USA, 519 .13.8 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys, 520 .13.8.1 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys: Numerical Example, 522 .13.8.2 Gyro Orientation of Underground Surveys: Numerical Example, 523 .14 Precision Alignment Surveys 527 .14.1 Introduction, 527 .14.2 Direct Laser Alignment Technique, 530 .14.3 Conventional Surveying Techniques of Alignment, 530 .14.3.1 Traversing Method of Alignment, 531 .14.3.1.1 Closed Traverse, 531 .14.3.1.2 Fitted (or Open) Traverse, 532 .14.3.1.3 Separate–Point–Included–Angle Traverse, 532 .14.3.2 Alignment with Three–Dimensional Electronic Coordinating System, 533 .14.3.2.1 Measurement of Reference Micro–Network, 535 .14.3.2.2 Measurement of Object Micro–Network, 535 .14.3.2.3 Notes on Alignment of Underground Nuclear Accelerators, 537 .14.4 Optical–Tooling Techniques, 538 .14.4.1 Optical–Tooling Instruments, 540 .14.4.1.1 Special Instrument Stand and Precision Lateral Adjuster, 540 .14.4.1.2 Alignment Telescope, 540 .14.4.1.3 Jig Transit, 542 .14.4.1.4 Optical Micrometer and Optical–Tooling Scale, 545 .14.4.1.5 Precise Leveling Instrument, 547 .14.4.1.6 Optical–Tooling Targets, 548 .14.4.1.7 Other Optical–Tooling Equipment, 549 .14.4.2 Collimation, Autocollimation, and Auto–Reflection, 550 .14.4.2.1 Collimation and Autocollimation, 550 .14.4.2.2 Auto–Reflection, 551 .14.4.3 Basic Optical–Tooling Operations, 553 .14.4.4 Optical–Tooling Example, 555 .14.4.4.1 Horizontal Alignment, 555 .14.4.4.2 Vertical Alignment, 558 .14.5 Metrology by Laser Interferometer Systems, 559 .14.5.1 Doppler Effects and Interferometer Systems, 559 .14.5.2 Interferometry Principle, 560 .14.5.2.1 Accuracy Limitation Factors, 561 .14.5.3 Interferometer Systems and Alignment Principles, 562 .14.5.3.1 Angular Measurement with Interferometer, 563 .14.5.3.2 Straightness Measurement with Interferometer, 564 .14.6 Alignment by Polar Measurement Systems, 565 .14.6.1 Laser Trackers, 565 .14.6.1.1 Tracker Measurement Head, 566 .14.6.1.2 Tracker Controller with System Software, 566 .14.6.1.3 Remote Power Unit and Other Accessories, 567 .14.6.1.4 Tracker Observables and Measurements, 568 .14.6.2 High–Precision Industrial Total Stations, 570 .14.6.3 Coherent Laser Radar System, 572 .14.7 Main Sources of Error in Alignment Surveys, 573 .Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda s Nomogram 575 .Appendix II: Commonly used Statistical Tables 577 .Appendix III: Tau Distribution Table for Significance Level 581 .Appendix IV: Important Units 587 .References 589 .Index 607

• ISBN: 978-1-119-10251-9
• Editorial: Wiley–Blackwell
• Encuadernacion: Cartoné
• Páginas: 648
• Fecha Publicación: 09/11/2015
• Nº Volúmenes: 1
• Idioma: Inglés